|
Greenhouse Gas | Chemical Abbreviation |
---|---|
Carbon Dioxide |
CO2 |
Methane |
CH4 |
Nitrous Oxide |
N2O |
Hydrofluorocarbons |
HFCs |
Perfluorocarbons |
PFCs |
Sulphur Hexafluoride |
SF6 |
Emissions of greenhouse gases are generally referred to as carbon dioxide equivalents. While the single most important greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, some other gases are more significant on a molecular basis. Methane, for example, has 24.5 times the climate change impact that carbon dioxide does, molecule for molecule. Six greenhouse gases are covered in the Kyoto Protocol and shown in Table 1.
Non-Annex 1 Parties (Developing Countries)
No emission reduction targets were agreed to for Non-Annex 1 Parties (developing countries). A proposal was put forward by the US and Japan for voluntary non-binding targets, but this was vetoed by developing countries. The possibility of binding targets on developing countries was not addressed nor was a process initiated to consider such involvement. The developing countries' position was that responsibility for greenhouse gas emission reduction falls directly on developed countries and that emissions growth from developing countries should not be restricted.
Outcomes Affecting Annex 1 and Non-Annex 1 Parties
Despite no emission reduction targets being agreed to for Non-Annex 1 Parties at Kyoto, these countries are of great importance to climate change policy. Economic growth in these countries means that by 2016 they will account for more than 50 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions.(6) Measures to enable Annex 1 countries to assist developing countries to reduce emissions are referred to as 'Joint Implementation' in the Protocol. Joint implementation may include technology development, energy efficiency improvements, the planting of forests to create carbon sinks (net removals of carbon from the atmosphere) or other assistance. The aim of these measures is to reduce emissions in developing countries, requiring no commitment from them, while allowing Annex 1 countries some credit for reductions achieved. Emissions trading provides a measure where Parties with emissions below targets can 'sell' these carbon dioxide equivalents to Parties requiring further emissions reductions. Emissions banking is intended to operate in similar way, where emission reductions in excess of targets can be used to reduce excess emissions at some other time.
Joint implementation, emissions trading and emissions banking were settled as measures that can be used by Parties to meet their obligations.(7) The Kyoto Protocol contains a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) that will facilitate joint implementation between Annex 1 and non-Annex 1 Parties. Private and public sector participation is allowed for in the CDM. Funds paid to the CDM will bear an administrative cost, but the bulk of funding will be used to finance certified joint implementation activities.
Provision for emissions trading to assist countries in meeting their emissions targets is contained in the Kyoto Protocol, but no agreement was reached on principles and guidelines for trading. Banking of traded emissions to provide credit transfer between periods was allowed for, but emissions from future periods may not be borrowed to meet commitments in prior periods.
The implementation of policies on a country by country basis depending on national circumstances was recognised by the Protocol, which lists a range of policies and measures. No agreement was reached on whether specific policies and measures should be coordinated across countries.
Signing of the agreement at Kyoto in December 1997 does not bind Party countries to it. A binding commitment will be created once the Protocol is ratified. Signing of the agreement in Kyoto does however, create an obligation to refrain from action which would defeat the object and purpose of the treaty. Two conditions must be met before the Protocol can enter into force. Only when 55 parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change representing at least 55 per cent of Annex 1 emissions have ratified the Protocol will it come into force. This formulation prevents the US and one other significant emitter from having a veto over the entry into force. The Kyoto Protocol ratification will be open for signing on 16 March 1998, in New York.(8)
Australia's agreed target of limiting itself to an 8 per cent increase in greenhouse gas emissions from the 1990 level by between 2008 to 2012 represents an estimated 30 per cent decrease in business as usual emissions by 2008 to 2012. Emissions from the energy sector alone are expected to grow by 40 per cent by 2010 under a business as usual scenario.
Australia's population is expected to grow by 30 per cent from 1990 to 2020, compared to 3 per cent in Europe.(9) Relatively greater per capita emission reductions will be required in Australia due to this growth. The achievement of Australia's Kyoto target will be a significant challenge, requiring the full implementation of existing and planned greenhouse mitigation measures.
The Prime Minister announced a $180 million greenhouse package for Australia on 20 November 1997. The package outlines reforms and ongoing commitment to the Greenhouse Challenge program, the energy market including support of renewable energy, the creation of sinks and the reduction of emission standards in industry. The Greenhouse Challenge is a program of cooperative agreements between government and industry under which companies undertake to reduce or abate their greenhouse gas emissions.
Calculating the effects of land use change and the implementation of carbon sinks is characterised by low levels of certainty. The statistical uncertainty may be plus or minus 80 per cent and this is one reason why land use change was taken out of the 1995 Australian inventory released in September 1997. (10)Uncertainty in land use calculations is intrinsic; estimates must be made on the amount of cleared material burned immediately and impacts of new land usage patterns on emissions well into the future. In contrast, the use of estimating emissions from energy usage confers high levels of certainty through stoichiometric calculations, that is, the numerical relationships between elements in chemical reactions.
The 3 per cent decline in total emissions between 1990 and 1995 shown in Table 2 was mainly due to land use change; over the period energy related emissions increased by 6 per cent. Table 2 includes forecast emissions in 2012, assuming that no change in the rate of land clearing occurs. The forecast shows that, in order to meet the Kyoto target of an 8 per cent increase, energy and other emissions must only increase by 21 per cent or less. This represents a significant reduction on current projections of a 40 per cent increase in energy emissions by 2010, based on 1990 emissions.
The decline in land clearing from 1990 to 1995 was through changes in policy in most states except Western Australia and Queensland. Land clearing rates declined in Western Australia in 1995 due to the introduction of more rigid policy. The policy was further tightened in April 1997, and since that time little land has been cleared in Western Australia.(11) The main state that could be affected in terms of land clearing as a consequence of the Kyoto Protocol is Queensland, which is clearing land at an estimated rate of 262,000 hectares per annum. However, the Minister for Primary Industries and Energy (Mr John Anderson) stated after the Kyoto Conference that farmers would not be forced to slow the rate of land clearing to help Australia meet the Kyoto Protocol.(12)
Table 2. Australia's Greenhouse Gas Emissions for 1990 (the Kyoto Protocol base year), 1995, and 2012 the Kyoto Protocol's final target year (forecast).(13)
Year |
Energy and Other Emissions Mt (CO2-e)* |
Land Clearing Emissions Mt (CO2-e)* |
Total Emissions Mt (CO2-e) * |
% of emissions due to Energy and Other Sources |
% of Emissions due to Land Clearing |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1990 Base Year |
379.6 |
122.6 |
502.2 |
75.6 |
24.4 |
1995
% Increase on Base Year |
402.4 6 % |
84.6 -31 % |
487.0 -3 % |
82.6 |
17.4 |
2012 (Forecast) Target Year
% Increase on Base Year |
457.8 21 % |
84.6 -31 % |
542.4 8 % Kyoto Protocol |
84.4 |
15.6 |
* Million tonnes carbon dioxide equivalent